Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) to Combat Against the Bulking Sludge...

SBR was pioneered for use in the remote regions of Australia with little or no operator attendance. As with the extended aeration process, to ensure optimum performance under field conditions, it is recommended that the maximum organic loading, expressed in terms of F : M ratio, be in the range from 0.05 to 0.15 kg BOD₅/kg MLVSS.day. If solids are to be wasted infrequently, adequate volume should be included for the storage of solids.

As currently used, all SBR systems have five steps in common that are carried out in sequence as follows : Fill : The purpose of the fill operation is to add substrate (raw wastewater or primary effluent) to the reactor. The fill process typically allows the liquid level in the reactor to rise from 25 percent of capacity (at the end of idle) to 100 percent. If controlled by time, the fill process normally lasts approximately 25 percent of the full cycle time. React : The purpose of react is to complete the reactions that were initiated during fill. Typically, react takes up 35 percent of the total cycle time. Settle : The purpose of settle is to allow solids separation to occur, providing a clarified supernatant to be discharged as effluent. In an SBR, this process is normally much more efficient than in a continuous - flow system because in the settle mode the reactor contents are completely quiescent. Draw : The purpose of draw is to remove clarified treated water from the reactor. Many types of decant mechanisms are in current use, with the most popular being floating or adjustable weirs. The time dedicated to draw can range from 5 to 30 percent of the total cycle time (15 minutes to 2 hours), with 45 minutes being a typical draw period. Idle : The purpose of idle in a multitank system is to provide time for one reactor to complete its fill cycle before switching to another unit. Because idle is not a necessary phase, it is sometimes omitted.

"Operating Sequence for SBR"...

The Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) is an activated sludge process designed to operate under non-steady state conditions. An SBR operates in a true batch mode with aeration and sludge settlement both occurring in the same tank. The major differences between SBR and conventional continuous-flow, activated sludge system is that the SBR tank carries out the functions of equalization aeration and sedimentation in a time sequence rather than in the conventional space sequence of continuous-flow systems. In addition, the SBR system can be designed with the ability to treat a wide range of influent volumes whereas the continuous system is based upon a fixed influent flowrate. Thus, there is a degree of flexibility associated with working in a time rather than in a space sequence. SBRs produce sludges with good settling properties providing the influent wastewater is admitted into the aeration in a controlled manner. Controls range from a simplified float and timer based system with a PLC to a PC based SCADA system with color graphics using either flow proportional aeration or dissolved oxygen controlled aeration to reduce aeration to reduce energy consumption and enhance the selective pressures for BOD, nutrient removal, and control of filaments. An appropriately designed SBR process is a unique combination of equipment and software. Working with automated control reduces the number of operator skill and attention requirement. The majority of the aeration equipment of sequencing batch reactors consist of jet, fine bubble, and coarse bubble aeration systems. The main focus of this report is a jet aerated sequencing batch reactor activated sludge system. The operating principles of a batch activated sludge process, or SBR, are characterized in six discrete periods ; (1) anoxic fill, (2) aerated fill, (3) react, (4) settle, (5) decant and (6) idle.

Anoxic Fill : The influent wastewater is distributed throughout the settled sludge through the influent distribution manifold to provide good contact between the microorganisms and the substrate. The influent can be either pumped in allowed to flow in by gravity. Most of this period occurs without aeration to create an environment that favors the procreation of microorganisms with good settling characteristics. Aeration begins at the beginning of this period.
Aerated Fill : Mixed liquor is drawn through the manifold, mixed with the influent flow in the motive liquid pump, and discharged, as motive liquid, to the jet aerator. This initiates the feast period. Feast is when the microorganisms have been in contact with the substrate and a large amount of oxygen is provided to facilitate the substrate consumption. Nitrification and denitrification occurs at the beginning of this stage. This period ends when the tank is either full or when a maximum time for filling is reached.
Settle : Aeration is discontinued at this stage and solids separation takes place leaving clear, treated effluent above the sludge blanket. During this clarifying period no liquids should enter or leave the tank to avoid turbulence in the supernatant.
Decant : This period is characterized by the withdrawal of treated effluent from approximately two feet below the surface of the mixed liquor by the floating solids excluding decanter . This removal must be done without disturbing the settled sludge.
Idle : The time in this stage can be used to waste sludge or perform backwashing of the jet aerator. The wasted sludge is pumped to an anaerobic digester to reduce the volume of the sludge to be discarded. The frequency of sludge wasting ranges between once each cycle to once every two to three months depending upon system design.

Jet Aeration Header : Jet aeration offers significant advantages in the SBR process due to its flexibility, good contact between substrate and microorganisms, and efficient oxygen transfer. One of its main features is that it can mix without aerating. Therefore it can provide for aerated and anoxic mix periods. The header in conjunction with a computer controlling for flow proportional aeration makes more oxygen available at higher flows than at lower flows by measuring the rate of change in the flow level in reactor.
Decanter : Decanting is best achieved through solids excluding decanters. The floating decanter is one of the most efficient and contains a spring loaded plug valve operated by hydraulic differential. This decanter is sustained about sixteen inches below the scum by a float therefore avoiding the decanting of floating matter.

Conclusion...

Wastewater treatment has been a challenge throughout the years due to varying influent chemical and physical characteristics and stringent effluent regulations. Treatment systems using activated sludge have been able to handle many of these difficulties. Given the lack of on-line computer controls, continuous flow systems have been mostly used for these purposes versus sequencing batch processes. The availability of artificial intelligence has now made the option of a SBR process more attractive thus providing better controls and results in wastewater treatment. This is coupled by the flexibility of a SBR in the treatment of variable flows, minimum operator interaction required, option for anoxic or anaerobic conditions in the same tank, good oxygen contact with microorganisms and substrate, small floor space, and good removal efficiency. Sequencing batch reactors operate by a cycle of periods consisting of fill, react, settle, decant, and idle. The duration, oxygen concentration, and mixing in these periods could be altered according to the needs of the particular treatment plant. Appropriate aeration and decanting is essential for the correct operations of these plants. The aerator should make the oxygen readily available to the microorganisms. The decanter should avoid the intake of floating matter from the tank. The many advantages offered by the SBR process justifies the recent increase in the implementation of this process in industrial and municipal wastewater treatment.

More Info about the SBR's...

Description...

The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a fill-and-draw activated sludge system for wastewater treatment. In this system, wastewater is added to a single "batch" reactor, treated to remove undesirable components, and then discharged. Equalization, aeration, and clarification can all be achieved using a single batch reactor. To optimize the performance of the system, two or more batch reactors are used in a predetermined sequence of operations. SBR systems have been successfully used to treat both municipal and industrial wastewater. They are uniquely suited for wastewater treatment applications characterized by low or intermittent flow conditions. Fill-and-draw batch processes similar to the SBR are not a recent development as commonly thought. Between 1914 and 1920, several full-scale fill-and-draw systems were in operation. Interest in SBRs was revived in the late 1950s and early 1960s, with the development of new equipment and technology. Improvements in aeration devices and controls have allowed SBRs to successfully compete with conventional activated sludge systems.

The unit processes of the SBR and conventional activated sludge systems are the same. A 1983 U.S. EPA report, summarized this by stating that "the SBR is no more than an activated sludge system which operates in time rather than in space." The difference between the two technologies is that the SBR performs equalization, biological treatment, and secondary clarification in a single tank using a timed control sequence. This type of reactor does, in some cases, also perform primary clarification. In a conventional activated sludge system, these unit processes would be accomplished by using separate tanks.



A modified version of the SBR is the Intermittent Cycle Extended Aeration System (ICEAS). In the ICEAS system, influent wastewater flows into the reactor on a continuous basis. As such, this is not a true batch reactor, as is the conventional SBR. A baffle wall may be used in the ICEAS to buffer this continuous inflow. The design configurations of the ICEAS and the SBR are otherwise very similar. Description of a Wastewater Treatment Plant Using an SBR A typical process flow schematic for a municipal wastewater treatment plant using an SBR is shown in figure given above. Influent wastewater generally passes through screens and grit removal prior to the SBR. The wastewater then enters a partially filled reactor, containing biomass, which is acclimated to the wastewater constituents during preceding cycles. Once the reactor is full, it behaves like a conventional activated sludge system, but without a continuous influent or effluent flow. The aeration and mixing is discontinued after the biological reactions are complete, the biomass settles, and the treated supernatant is removed. Excess biomass is wasted at any time during the cycle. Frequent wasting results in holding the mass ratio of influent substrate to biomass nearly constant from cycle to cycle. Continuous flow systems hold the mass ratio of influent substrate to biomass constant by adjusting return activated sludge flowrates continually as influent flowrates, characteristics, and settling tank underflow concentrations vary. After the SBR, the "batch" of wastewater may flow to an equalization basin where the wastewater flowrate to additional unit processed can be is controlled at a determined rate. In some cases the wastewater is filtered to remove additional solids and then disinfected. As illustrated in figure given above, the solids handling system may consist of a thickener and an aerobic digester. With SBRs there is no need for return activated sludge (RAS) pumps and primary sludge (PS) pumps like those associated with conventional activated sludge systems. With the SBR, there is typically only one sludge to handle. The need for gravity thickeners prior to digestion is determined on a case by case basis depending on the characteristics of the sludge.

An SBR serves as an equalization basin when the vessel is filling with wastewater, enabling the system to tolerate peak flows or peak loads in the influent and to equalize them in the batch reactor. In many conventional activated sludge systems, separate equalization is needed to protects the biological system from peak flows, which may wash out the biomass, or peak loads, which may upset the treatment process. It should also be noted that primary clarifiers are typically not required for municipal wastewater applications prior to an SBR. In most conventional activated sludge wastewater treatment plants,primary clarifiers are used prior to the biological system. However, primary clarifiers may be recommended by the SBR manufacturer if the total suspended solids (TSS) or biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) are greater than 400 to 500 mg/L. Historic data should be evaluated and the SBR manufacturer consulted to determine whether primary clarifiers or equalization are recommended prior to an SBR for municipal and industrial applications. Equalization may be required after the SBR, depending on the downstream process. If equalization is not used prior to filtration, the filters need to be sized in order to receive the batch of wastewater from the SBR, resulting in a large surface area required for filtration. Sizing filters to accept these "batch" flows is usually not feasible, which is why equalization is used between an SBR and downstream filtration. Separate equalization following the biological system is generally not required for most conventional activated sludge systems, because the flow is on a continuous and more constant basis.

Applicability...

SBRs are typically used at flowrates of 5 MGD or less. The more sophisticated operation required at larger SBR plants tends to discourage the use of these plants for large flowrates. As these systems have a relatively small footprint, they are useful for areas where the available land is limited. In addition, cycles within the system can be easily modified for nutrient removal in the future, if it becomes necessary. This makes SBRs extremely flexible to adapt to regulatory changes for effluent parameters such as nutrient removal. SBRs are also very cost effective if treatment beyond biological treatment is required, such as filtration.

Advantages and Disadvantages...

Some advantages and disadvantages of SBRs are listed below ;

Advantages...

(1) Equalization, primary clarification (in most cases), biological treatment, and secondary clarification can be achieved in a single reactor vessel. (2) Operating flexibility and control. (3) Minimal footprint. (4) Potential capital cost savings by eliminating clarifiers and other equipment.

Disadvantages...

(1) A higher level of sophistication is required (compared to conventional systems), especially for larger systems, of timing units and controls. (2) Higher level of maintenance (compared to conventional systems) associated with more sophisticated controls, automated switches, and automated valves. (3) Potential of discharging floating or settled sludge during the DRAW or decant phase with some SBR configurations. (4) Potential plugging of aeration devices during selected operating cycles, depending on the aeration system used by the manufacturer. (5) Potential requirement for equalization after the SBR, depending on the downstream processes.

Design Criteria...

For any wastewater treatment plant design, the first step is to determine the anticipated influent characteristics of the wastewater and the effluent requirements for the proposed system. These influent parameters typically include design flow, maximum daily flow BOD₅ , TSS, pH, alkalinity, wastewater temperature, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), ammonia-nitrogen (NH₃ - N), and total phosphorus (TP). For industrial and domestic wastewater, other site specific parameters may also be required.The state regulatory agency should be contacted to determine the effluent requirements of the proposed plant. These effluent discharge parameters will be dictated by the state in the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. The parameters typically permitted for municipal systems are flowrate, BOD₅ , TSS, and Fecal Coliform. In addition, many states are moving toward requiring nutrient removal. Therefore, total nitrogen (TN), TKN, NH₃ - N, or TP may also be required. It is imperative to establish effluent requirements because they will impact the operating sequence of the SBR. For example, if there is a nutrient requirement and NH₃ - N or TKN is required, then nitrification will be necessary. If there is a TN limit, then nitrification and denitrification will be necessary. Once the influent and effluent characteristics of the system are determined, the engineer will typically consult SBR manufacturers for a recommended design. Based on these parameters, and other site specific parameters such as temperature, key design parameters are selected for the system. An example of these parameters for a wastewater system loading is listed in table given below.

Parameter	Municipal	Industrial
F / M ( kg BOD / kg MLSS . day )	0.15 - 0.40	0.15 - 0.60
Treatment cycle duration ( hr )	4	4 - 24
Typically low water level MLSS ( mg / L )	2,000 - 2,500	2,000 - 4,000
Hydraulic retention time ( hr )	6 - 14	Varies

Once the key design parameters are determined, the number of cycles per day, number of basins, decant volume, reactor size, and detention times can be calculated. Additionally, the aeration equipment, decanter, and associated piping can then be sized. Other site specific information is needed to size the aeration equipment, such as site elevation above mean sea level, wastewater temperature, and total dissolved solids concentration. The operation of an SBR is based on the fill-and-draw principle, which consists of the following five basic steps: Idle, Fill, React, Settle, and Draw. More than one operating strategy is possible during most of these steps. For industrial wastewater applications, treatability studies are typically required to determine the optimum operating sequence. For most municipal wastewater treatment plants, treatability studies are not required to determine the operating sequence because municipal wastewater flowrates and characteristic variations are usually predictable and most municipal designers will follow conservative design approaches.

The Idle step occurs between the Draw and the Fill steps, during which treated effluent is removed and influent wastewater is added. The length of the Idle step varies depending on the influent flowrate and the operating strategy. Equalization is achieved during this step if variable idle times are used. Mixing to condition the biomass and sludge wasting can also be performed during the Idle step, depending on the operating strategy. Influent wastewater is added to the reactor during the Fill step. The following three variations are used for the Fill step and any or all of them may be used depending on the operating strategy: static fill, mixed fill, and aerated fill. During static fill, influent wastewater is added to the biomass already present in the SBR. Static fill is characterized by no mixing or aeration, meaning that there will be a high substrate (food) concentration when mixing begins. A high food to microorganisms (F:M) ratio creates an environment favorable to floc forming organisms versus filamentous organisms, which provides good settling characteristics for the sludge. Additionally, static fill conditions favor organisms that produce internal storage products during high substrate conditions, a requirement for biological phosphorus removal. Static fill may be compared to using "selector" compartments in a conventional activated sludge system to control the F:M ratio.Mixed fill is classified by mixing influent organics with the biomass, which initiates biological reactions. During mixed fill, bacteria biologically degrade the organics and use residual oxygen or alternative electron acceptors, such as nitrate-nitrogen. In this environment, denitrification may occur under these anoxic conditions. Denitrification is the biological conversion of nitrate-nitrogen to nitrogen gas. An anoxic condition is defined as an environment in which oxygen is not present and nitrate-nitrogen is used by the microorganisms as the electron acceptor. In a conventional biological nutrient removal (BNR) activated sludge system, mixed fill is comparable to the anoxic zone which is used for denitrification. Anaerobic conditions can also be achieved during the mixed fill phase.

After the microorganisms use the nitrate-nitrogen, sulfate becomes the electron acceptor. Anaerobic conditions are characterized by the lack of oxygen and sulfate as the electron acceptor. Aerated Fill is classified by aerating the contents of the reactor to begin the aerobic reactions completed in the React step. Aerated Fill can reduce the aeration time required in the React step. The biological reactions are completed in the React step, in which mixed react and aerated react modes are available. During aerated react, the aerobic reactions initialized during aerated fill are completed and nitrification can be achieved. Nitrification is the conversion of ammonia-nitrogen to nitrite-nitrogen and ultimately to nitrate-nitrogen. If the mixed react mode is selected, anoxic conditions can be attained to achieve denitrification. Anaerobic conditions can also be achieved in the mixed react mode for phosphorus removal. Settle is typically provided under quiescent conditions in the SBR. In some cases, gentle mixing during the initial stages of settling may result in a clearer effluent and a more concentrated settled sludge. In an SBR, there are no influent or effluent currents to interfere with the settling process as in a conventional activated sludge system. The Draw step uses a decanter to remove the treated effluent, which is the primary distinguishing factor between different SBR manufacturers. In general, there are floating decanters and fixed decanters. Floating decanters offer several advantages over fixed decanters as described in the Tank and Equipment Description Section.

Construction...

Construction of SBR systems can typically require a smaller footprint than conventional activated sludge systems because the SBR often eliminates the need for primary clarifiers. The SBR never requires secondary clarifiers. The size of the SBR tanks themselves will be site specific, however the SBR system is advantageous if space is limited at the proposed site. A few case studies are presented in table given below to provide general sizing estimates at different flowrates. Sizing of these systems is site specific and these case studies do not reflect every system at that size.

Flow ( MGD )	Reactors			Blowers
	No	Size ( ft )	Volume ( MG )	No	Size ( HP )
0.012	1	18 x 12	0.021	1	15
0.10	2	24 x 24	0.069	3	7.5
1.2	2	80 x 80	0.908	3	125
1.0	2	58 x 58	0.479	3	40
1.4	2	69 x 69	0.678	3	60
1.46	2	78 x 78	0.910	4	40
2.0	2	82 x 82	0.958	3	75
4.25	4	104 x 80	1.556	5	200
5.2	4	87 x 87	1.359	5	125
Note: These case studies and sizing estimates were provided by Aqua-Aerobic Systems, Inc. and are site specific to individual treatment systems.

The actual construction of the SBR tank and equipment may be comparable or simpler than a conventional activated sludge system. For Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR) plants, an SBR eliminates the need for return activated sludge (RAS) pumps and pipes. It may also eliminate the need for internal Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid (MLSS) recirculation, if this is being used in a conventional BNR system to return nitrate-nitrogen.The control system of an SBR operation is more complex than a conventional activated sludge system and includes automatic switches, automatic valves, and instrumentation. These controls are very sophisticated in larger systems. The SBR manufacturers indicate that most SBR installations in the United States are used for smaller wastewater systems of less than two million gallons per day (MGD) and some references recommend SBRs only for small communities where land is limited. This is not always the case, however, as the largest SBR in the world is currently a 10 MGD system in the United Arab Emirates.

Tank and Equipment Description...

The SBR system consists of a tank, aeration and mixing equipment, a decanter, and a control system. The central features of the SBR system include the control unit and the automatic switches and valves that sequence and time the different operations. SBR manufacturers should be consulted for recommendations on tanks and equipment. It is typical to use a complete SBR system recommended and supplied by a single SBR manufacturer. It is possible, however, for an engineer to design an SBR system, as all required tanks, equipment, and controls are available through different manufacturers. This is not typical of SBR installation because of the level of sophistication of the instrumentation and controls associated with these systems.

The SBR tank is typically constructed with steel or concrete. For industrial applications, steel tanks coated for corrosion control are most common while concrete tanks are the most common for municipal treatment of domestic wastewater. For mixing and aeration, jet aeration systems are typical as they allow mixing either with or without aeration, but other aeration and mixing systems are also used. Positive displacement blowers are typically used for SBR design to handle wastewater level variations in the reactor. As previously mentioned, the decanter is the primary piece of equipment that distinguishes different SBR manufacturers. Types of decanters include floating and fixed. Floating decanters offer the advantage of maintaining the inlet orifice slightly below the water surface to minimize the removal of solids in the effluent removed during the DRAW step. Floating decanters also offer the operating flexibility to vary fill-and-draw volumes. Fixed decanters are built into the side of the basin and can be used if the Settle step is extended. Extending the Settle step minimizes the chance that solids in the wastewater will float over the fixed decanter. In some cases, fixed decanters are less expensive and can be designed to allow the operator to lower or raise the level of the decanter. Fixed decanters do not offer the operating flexibility of the floating decanters.

Health and Safety...

Safety should be the primary concern in every design and system operation. A properly designed and operated system will minimize potential health and safety concerns. Manuals such as the Manual of Practice (MOP) No. 8, Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants, and MOP No. 11, Operation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants should be consulted to minimize these risks. Other appropriate industrial wastewater treatment manuals, federal regulations, and state regulations should also be consulted for the design and operation of wastewater treatment systems.

Performance...

The performance of SBRs is typically comparable to conventional activated sludge systems and depends on system design and site specific criteria. Depending on their mode of operation, SBRs can achieve good BOD and nutrient removal. For SBRs, the BOD removal efficiency is generally 85 to 95 percent. SBR manufacturers will typically provide a process guarantee to produce an effluent of less than ; (1) 10 mg / L BOD, (2) 10 mg / L TSS, (3) 5 - 8 mg / L TN and (4) 1 - 2 mg / L TP.

Operation and Maintenance...

The SBR typically eliminates the need for separate primary and secondary clarifiers in most municipal systems, which reduces operations and maintenance requirements. In addition, RAS pumps are not required. In conventional biological nutrient removal systems, anoxic basins, anoxic zone mixers, toxic basins, toxic basin aeration equipment, and internal MLSS nitrate-nitrogen recirculation pumps may be necessary. With the SBR, this can be accomplished in one reactor using aeration/mixing equipment, which will minimize operation and maintenance requirements otherwise be needed for clarifiers and pumps.

Since the heart of the SBR system is the controls, automatic valves, and automatic switches, these systems may require more maintenance than a conventional activated sludge system. An increased level of sophistication usually equates to more items that can fail or require maintenance. The level of sophistication may be very advanced in larger SBR wastewater treatment plants requiring a higher level of maintenance on the automatic valves and switches. Significant operating flexibility is associated with SBR systems. An SBR can be set up to simulate any conventional activated sludge process, including BNR systems. For example, holding times in the Aerated React mode of an SBR can be varied to achieve simulation of a contact stabilization system with a typical hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 3.5 to 7 hours or, on the other end of the spectrum, an extended aeration treatment system with a typical HRT of 18 to 36 hours. For a BNR plant, the aerated react mode (oxic conditions) and the mixed react modes (anoxic conditions) can be alternated to achieve nitrification and denitrification. The mixed fill mode and mixed react mode can be used to achieve denitrification using anoxic conditions. In addition, these modes can ultimately be used to achieve an anaerobic condition where phosphorus removal can occur. Conventional activated sludge systems typically require additional tank volume to achieve such flexibility. SBRs operate in time rather than in space and the number of cycles per day can be varied to control desired effluent limits, offering additional flexibility with an SBR.

Costs...

This section includes some general guidelines as well as some general cost estimates for planning purposes. It should be remembered that capital and construction cost estimates are site-specific. Budget level cost estimates presented in table given below are based on projects that occurred from 1995 to 1998. Budget level costs include such as the blowers, diffusers, electrically operated valves, mixers, sludge pumps, decanters, and the control panel. All costs have been updated to March 1998 costs, using an ENR construction cost index of 5875 from the March 1998 Engineering News Record, rounded off to the nearest thousand dollars.

Design flowrate ( MGD )	Equipment costs ( US $ )
0.012	94,000
0.015	137,000
1.0	339,000
1.4	405,000
1.46	405,000
2.0	564,000
4.25	1,170,000

In table given below, provided a range of equipment costs for different design flowrates is provided.

Design flowrate ( MGD )	Equipment costs ( US $ )
1	150,000 - 350,000
5	459,000 - 730,000
10	1,089,000 - 1,370,000
15	2,200,000
20	2,100,000 - 3,000,000

Again the equipment cost items provided do not include the cost for the tanks, sitework, excavation/backfill, installation, contractor*s overhead and profit, or legal, administrative, contingency, and engineering services. These items must be included to calculate the overall construction costs of an SBR system. Costs for other treatment processes, such as screening, equalization, filtration, disinfection, or aerobic digestion, may be included if required. The ranges of construction costs for a complete, installed SBR wastewater treatment system are presented in table given below. The variances in the estimates are due to the type of sludge handling facilities and the differences in newly constructed plants versus systems that use existing plant facilities. As such, in some cases these estimates include other processes required in an SBR wastewater treatment plant.

Design flowrate ( MGD )	Equipment costs ( US $ / gallon)
0.5 - 1.0	1.96 - 5.00
1.1 - 1.5	1.83 - 2.69
1.5 - 2.0	1.65 - 3.29

There is typically an economy of scale associated with construction costs for wastewater treatment, meaning that larger treatment plants can usually be constructed at a lower cost per gallon than smaller systems. The use of common wall construction for larger treatment systems, which can be used for square or rectangular SBR reactors, results in this economy of scale. Operations and Maintenance (O&M) costs associated with an SBR system may be similar to a conventional activated sludge system. Typical cost items associated with wastewater treatment systems include labor, overhead, supplies, maintenance, operating administration, utilities, chemicals, safety and training, laboratory testing, and solids handling. Labor and maintenance requirements may be reduced in SBRs because clarifiers, clarification equipment, and RAS pumps may not be necessary. On the other hand, the maintenance requirements for the automatic valves and switches that control the sequencing may be more intensive than for a conventional activated sludge system. O&M costs are site specific and may range from $800 to $2,000 dollars per million gallons treated.