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Istanbul... Istanbul is the only city in the world built on two continents which Fatih Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror changed in his era. It stands on the shores of the uniquely beautiful Bosphorus (Istanbul Bogazi) where the waters of the Black Sea combine with those of The sea of Marmara and the Golden Horn. Istanbul is a province designed to be the capital and it has been the capital of three empires which used to dominate the world. Today the province houses the precious remains of these civilizations and stands with all its glamour and mysticism as a harmonious link between East and West, past and present, antique and modern. History... It is one of the richest cities in historical background, as well as one of the most beautiful, enchanting and alive cities of the world. It has an atmosphere of its own with its life-style, people and numerous attractions. In Istanbul you will have to be generous with time since it has so much to show. The old palaces, the great mosques with soaring minarets, ancient churches, museums, bazaars, the Istanbul Strait and others are wonderful sites worth seeing. This is the city that gradually spreads on both sides of the beautiful Bosphorus which was naturally formed early in the IVth Period of Geology as the sea water occupied the deep and narrow valley. The city has been the capital for three empires and been attractive for its historical treasure besides the beauty of the surrounding landscape. In 660 BC, the Megarians who were leaded by Byzas for settlement in where today Topkapi Palace stands erect, named the city as Byzantion in memory of their commander. When the Byzas, Megarians asked their prophets, where to set up their “home”, their prophets said “ against the land of the blinds”. On exploration of the Bosphorus the Megarians were fascinated by the uninhabited beauty of the landscape and as the land accross the water was already occupied by the Khalkhedonians, they thought one who leaves such beauty uninhabited and lives against it must be blind and obeyed their prophets’ foresight with pleasure.

Click here for the web site of "The Metropolitan Municipality of Istanbul"...

A century later than the establishment Byzantion was occupied by Persians in 513 BC and then by Athens and Spartians. In a period of conflict between Athens and Spartians, Macedonian Kingdom under King Philippos II’s reign had become powerful day after day. Although this expansive Kingdom captured Byzantion in 340 BC, was unable to occupy. After Greece was dominated by Alexander who took over King Philippos II, Persians were also attacked by him and Alexander got hold of Anatolia defeating the Persians in 334 BC. Following the death of Alexander, the city was governed by his victorious commanders until it was tremendously destroyed by the Galatian attacks after 278 BC.

In that period of fluctuation, Byzantion eventually was dominated by Romans who were about to establish a global Empire after the defeat of Macedonians in 146 BC and the city was governed under the force of Roman State of Thrace. Roman Emperor Septimus Severus ordered total destruction of the Byzantion and massacre of the Byzantians who were with his rival Roman General Niger.

As Septimus Severus would not easily give away such a strategical city, later had it rebuilt and changed the name of the city as Antoneinia. The walls surrounding the city were expanded, the square in front of St. Sophia Church was reorganized and the road was connected from there to Cemberlitas. In 203 BC, construction of a Hippodrome was started and an amphitheater was built downhill Acropolis nearby Haliç. Following the defeat of his rival Licinius in 324 AD, Emperor Constantinus (306 - 337) started the foundation and development of the city. Initially the Roman Capital was thought to be settled in Troy in memory of mythological Trojan Aeneas however then Byzantion was preferred. The surrounding walls built by Severus, were rebuilt further away in 2.8 km west. The “Forums” (Squares) were connected each other by roads within the walls. Christian Constantinus had old Pagan temples repaired besides having built the magnificent St. Sophia Church.

The restored city was named as Nea Rome and declared to be Capital in 11^th May 330 with a tremendous ceremony. Following the death of Constantinus, the name of the city was converted into Constantinopolis. Later on, the name started to be pronounced as Stinpolis, Stinpol, Estanbul and eventually Istanbul. The competition between Constantinopolis as center of Christianity and Rome as center of Paganism outraged and Constantinopolis became outstanding for Christianity. Theodosius I as a dedicated Orthodox, suppressed the Pagans and in that period of turbulence divided the Empire into two in 395 AD.

That discrimination ended up with Western Rome, the capital of which was Rome, and Eastern Rome, the capital of which was Constantinopolis. Getting advantage of this division, Western Goths forced the walls of Constantinopolis. Eastern Roman Empire solved the problem by appointing Alarik the king of Goths as General Commander of the Balkans while Rome, the Capital of Western Roman Empire, was destroyed to a great extent as they failed to perform such a policy (400 AD). Having survived the occupation of Goths, the Capital of Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinopolis, faced attacks from Huns (440) and could survive only after the dispersion of Hun Empire following the death of Emperor Attila. During this period under stress, the economy failed in Eastern Roman Empire, there arouse deep conflicts between Ariusism and Orthodoxes and even the efforts of Theodosius II’s were not enough to solve the problem. This was when the Haliç and Marmara walls were built inside the outer surrounding ones. So, the city was expanded two fifth of its size. After the death of Theodosius, subsequent Emperor Marcianus in 451 invited the Kadiköy Council to get together, with this unity, the Archbishop of Constantinopolis were respected in equal highness of the Pope. Therefore, the Church also was divided into two as East and West. Leon l, who took over Marcianus’ reign, invited Isaurians to get rid of Aspar the leader of German Community in the Capital and Isaurians having easily dominated the city, shortly took over the government on the name of their commander Zenon and ruled for 15 years. In the meantime, Western Roman Empire was swept away from the stage of history in 476 as a result of German attacks. Anastasios I, who took over after Zenon, while trying to balance the economy, caused conflicts among religious communities as a result of his discriminative attitude towards religion. Trying protect his crown by extensive privileges given to the Orthodox community, Justinianus I (527 - 565), nephew of Justinius, who took over right after him, reorganized the army and went for crusades to enlarge the borders with respect to the former extent, therefore on his victory over the Vandals and Berberis in Africa, Goths in Spain, rearranged the contemporary map of the region as Mediterranean Sea to be a lake for Eastern Roman Empire.

However, he received disregard on his performance because of his suppressive regime. Orthodoxes, The Blues who were the representatives of land-owners and The Greens who were the representatives of tradesmen and craftsmen gathered in Hippodrome and rebelled against Justinianus. During this rebellion dated 532 and named as Nika Rebellion, St. Sophia previously restored by Theodosius II as it had been destroyed before in a rebellion in 404, was burnt. This rebellion spread throughout the city and a lot of blood was shed.

Following Justinianus, during Justinius II, Tiberius I and Mavrikios reigns, Constantinopolis gained more importance each day being a milestone on the Silkroad of China-India trade route. The city resisted the attacks from eastern Sasanians and those attacks continued until 591. In Phokas Period (602-610), religious and political turbulence started again until Herakleios who took over in 610 changed the policy and shared the Anatolian land among the military executions called Thema. Instead of paid soldiers, with the army gathered from Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Armenia, he regained the land once lost. The state which is widely known as Byzance instead Eastern Roman Empire, had to bear the Arab attacks in 7^th century; in 673-677 Arabs kept the city under conquest. Justinianus II, who took over in 685, performed a policy based mainly on peasants and therefore, the aristocrats united with the Blues in 695 dethroned Justinianus’II and Leontios became the Emperor. This was followed by Tiberius’ counter rebellion and dethroned Justinianus was recrowned in 705. Emperor Justinianus continue to lead the reign until 711 when he was killed in a rebellion. While the Arab attacks were continuing, Theodosios III became the Emperor. However his reign also didn’t last long and in 717 Leo III was throned. Leo III supported iconoclastic attitude and had the busts of previous emperors broken. The turbulence was persistent during the reign of his son, Constantinos V. The city endured Arab and Bulgarian attacks and had hard times during this period until the taxes paid to them were increased and trouble was suppressed. From 802 till 811, Emperor Nikephoros l went over Bulgaria several times to get rid of the risk, however, he was killed there. Although Arabs and Russians recaptured the city in 821 during Michael II period, they were unable to occupy it.

When Basileios, who was a Balkan Slavian, converted to Christianism and making his life as a horsebreaker in Constantinopolis, had the emperor executed and announced himself as the Emperor of Eastern Roman Empire, his Macedonian reign, took over the Byzantine throne in 867-1056. In 963, Commander Nikephoros Phokas II took over the Empire from Romanos II. Commander Nikephoros Phokas II went eastwards and occupied Klikia, Cyprus and Antioch. Then expanded upto Donau via Bulgaria and was killed when he returned to Constantinopolis in 969. After Nikephoros Phokas II, Ioannes (Tsimiskes) I took over. While the struggle between aristocracy and peasants were going on, the state was under pressure with attacks from Seljuks on the east, Normans on the west, Petchenegues and Koumans on the north.

In a period when Roman and Byzantine churches were gradually alienated towards each other, the public throned Romanos Diogenes in 1068. Diogenes went over Seljuks on the east to get rid of their challenge however in 26th August 1071 was defeated in Manzikert and submitted to Alparslan. When the Emperor returned to Constantinopolis being set free by the Turks, he was killed after his eyes were removed. Taking over in 1081, Emperor Alexios started the reign of Comnenos dynasty. As a result of Turkish threat on the east, Byzance supported crusades on the name of Christianity. In 1096, the first crusaders arrived Constantinopolis having destroyed Hungary and Balkans, the Emperor directed this army to Anatolia. However those first crusaders were tremendously defeated by Seljuks. The same year, the second crusaders started off and captured Antioch in 1098 and Jerusalem in 1099. Independent crusaders and the Byzance had conflicts as the crusaders would torture the common people and destroy wherever they stepped on. That was a reason for rebellion against them within the Empire and Andronikos became the Emperor in 1183 following the rebellion. The outstanding performance of the Emperor was to put pressure on the aristocracy saying “Give up injustice or your life”. That motto widely received respect from the public.

However the aristocrats united with the outer forces got hold of Cyprus and Sicily; then they went over Constantinopolis. Under such a pressure, the public rebelled against the Emperor and lynched him. When Jerusalem was occupied by Selahattin Eyyubi in 1187, the third crusaders started off. Th e fourth crusaders apt to go over Anatolia, captured Constantinopolis and occupied the city. Therefore the Byzantines had to fight with the Latins but were defeated and the city was destroyed.

Latins declared Baudin the Count of Flander as the first Latin Emperor of Byzance. The new Emperor kept one fourth of the Empire and shared the rest among Venetians and other crusaders. Therefore, three eighth of the land, the Bosphorus and the sea belonged to Venetians. The inhabitants were kept under pressure and they seemed to accept the Latin dominance. The grandsons of Emperor Andronikos I, established the Pontus Byzantine State in Trabzon in 1204. Contemporarily, an exile government was established in Iznik (Nicaea) by Theodoros Laskaris. Kouman Turks and Bulgarians defeated Latins in Edirne (Adrianople) in 1205. Then Constantinopolis had been a colony of the Venetians, until it was occupied by Michael Palaiologos VIII, the Emperor of Nicaea. That concluded the Latin dominance over Constantinopolis performing a dual policy between Venetians and Genoeses.

The Empire declared Galata to be a free trade zone and Genoeses were appointed to govern the zone. When Andronikos II from the Palaiologos dynasty was throned in 1282, the Empire was suffering a depression in economy and a turbulence in military. Venetians and Genoeses were in a limitless freedom to govern. When Catalans’ leader Roger de Flor came to capture Anatolia from Turks but defeated in 1303, he compensated his defeat by plundering Constantinopolis. In the same period, Anatolian Seljuks’state, capital of which was Konya, dispersed under Mongolian invasion in 1308.

Following the dispersion, there were several independent “Beylik”s in Anatolia. One of them was the “Kayi Asireti” in “Sögüt” under “Osman Bey”s leadership who started the establishment of the Ottoman Empire later in 1299. Ottomans gradually transformed from a small “Beylik” to an expansive Empire and they attacked to conquer Byzance several times. However, in 1453, Byzance was conquered thoroughly by young Ottoman Sultan, Mehmet II the Conqueror, while Byzance was under the rule of their last Emperor, Constantinos Palaiologos XI.

Hagia Sophia...

The earliest of Istanbul’s church was constructed during the reign of the Emperor Constantinus in basilical form, with a wooden roof. It was then the cathedral church of the city, and entitled Megala Ekklesia. From the Vth century onwards it became known as the church of Divine Wisdom - Hagia Sophia. The original church was burnt said to have been during an uprising on 20^th June, 404, was rebuilt during the reign of Theodosius II, and re-opened on 10^th October, 415. The second church was destroyed by fire during the Nika uprising in 532, and was completely restored with the support of the Empress Theodora, wife of Justinianus after that uprising had been suppressed.

The emperor commissioned the architects Anthemios of Tralles and Isidor of Miletus to rebuild it, and according to the account of the Byzantine historian Prokopius, the emperor ordered a building of great stature and magnificence, using his imperial authority to ensure that nothing was lacking in the building of it. Eight columns of red porphyry were brought from the Diana Temple at Ephesus. Other marbles were obtained from classical sites and from some of the finest marble quarries of the Byzantine world. A thousand masons and ten thousand apprentices worked on the building, the aim being to finish it as soon as possible. The work began in 532 AD, was completed in five years, 11 months and 10 days, and the church was consecrated on 27^th December, 537 by the Emperor Justinianus. The grand piers over the underground cisterns on the site were, to some extent, a measure against earthquake damage, but did not prevent this monumental structure from suffering some damage during earthquakes in 533, 557 and 559. We learn that it was restored in 562 by the architect Isidoros, nephew of the earlier architect of the same name, who raised the previously depressed dome by some 6.25 m. Further support for the major piers was provided by buttresses.

In the 9th century, during the reigns of the emperors Theophilos and Mikhael III, the bronze doors were installed. In 869 and 889, the church was damaged by earthquake, and was reopened after extensive repair on 13th May, 994. Mosaics were added during the reign of the Emperor Basileios II.

During the Latin invasion of 1204, St. Sophia was raided and stripped of its finest ornaments, including the doors, which were mistakenly believed to be gold. The building was greatly damaged during this invasion. Four major buttresses were added to the building in 1317, but it underwent considerable damage later in the earthquake of 1346, to be restored once again in 1354 by the architect G. Prella. Mehmet the Conqueror had the church restored once again after the conquest of Istanbul, and converted it into a mosque. Among the many restorations and additions to this, the largest church of the Byzantine era, one of the most extensive was the addition of buttress walls on the north and south façades in 1317 by Andronikos II.

The four minarets, one on each corner of the building were added at various times during the Ottoman period, the southeastern minaret dating from the reign of Mehmed II, the northeastern minaret to Bayezid II and the two minarets on the western facade to the period of Selim II. The last restoration, carried out during the Ottoman period, the southeastern minaret from the reign of Mehmed II, the northeastern minaret to Bayezit II and the two minarets on the western facade to the period of Selim II. The last restoration, carried out during the Ottoman period coincides with the reign of Abdülmecid. The church was converted into a museum during the recent Republican period, by order of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and re-opened on 1st February, 1935. The building covers an area of 100 x 70 m., and the plan consists of a wide central nave flanked by two smaller naves, an apsis, an inner and outer narthex and a central dome up to 55.6 m. in height. Owing to restorations carried out at various periods, this dome is no longer entirely circular but has, gradually become elliptical.

The forty lobes of the dome, separated by brick ribs, are pierced by oculi. In the center of the dome are inscribed verses from the Koranic text - the Sure-i Nur, Executed by the Ottoman calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa Izzet Efendi. The interior of the church is of extreme importance to art historians, being finely decorated with a number of important mosaics and artifacts from various periods. According to accounts of the late classical period, it was decorated with fine mosaics of gold, silver, glass, stone, marble, limestone, granite and terra cotta tesserae.

Some of the more important mosaics are as follows: Entering the main portal to the inner narthex, one sees, over the portal, the figure of the Madonna holding the Christ child, flanked by Constantine the Great on her right, presenting a model of the city of Constantinople to her, and on her left, the Emperor Justinianus presenting a model of the church. This dates from the last quarter of the 10^th century and the reign of the Emperor Basil II. The cross - vaulted portico to the inner narthex is decorated with gold mosaics of the Justinian period. These are the original non-figurative mosaics of St. Sophia, which, being non- figurative, released from damage during the Iconoclastic period. The Emperor’s Gate, on the south - western façade of the church is surmounted by a mosaic showing Christ enthroned on a semicircular encrusted throne, holding a book. The medallion to the right of this contains a bust portrait of the Madonna, and to the left, a bust of Gabriel.

The figure prostrating himself before Christ is thought to be the Emperor Leo, and the mosaic is thought to date to the 10^th century AD. The semi-dome of the apse contains a mosaic of the Madonna enthroned, holding the Christ child, dating to the 9^th century. It is thought to be the earliest figurative mosaic on the Post-iconoclastic period in the church. To the right of the drum stands the white-robed figure of Gabriel, and to the left, nowadays considerably damaged figure of the archangel Michael. Portraits of the saints once decorated the semi-circular arched niches below the northern tympanum, only three of these have survived. On the western wall, contained in the niches, are portraits of the patriarch of the eastern church, the Istanbul patriarchs Saint Ignatius and Ioannes Krysostomos in the first and central niche, and the figure of Saint Ignatius Theophoros, patriarch of Antakya (Antioch) in the fifth niche. These figures are robed in mantles bearing cruciform motifs on the collar and skirt, and hold the bible in their hands. The names of the figures are written beside them in Greek. These mosaics date from the end of the 9^th century to the beginning of the 10^th century. The four pendentives of the dome are decorated with the figures of cherubim or seraphim. Those on the eastern side of the church are original, while the western figures were restored in fresco in 1847 by Fossati. Access to the galleries of the church is obtained via a stone-paved ramp. The gallery decorated with green columns directly opposite the apsis was used by the empress and her retinue during ceremonies. Entering the southern gallery from here one passes through a pseudo-wooden marble door, now named the gate of heaven and hell. The right-hand side, decorated with floral motifs representing heaven; the left-hand side, undecorated, representing hell.

Passing through this door one enters the chamber set aside for the meetings of the consuls, decorated with the Deisis mosaic, one of the most famous mosaics in the world. It portrays Christ flanked by the Virgin and John the Baptist. This extremely expressive mosaic dates to the 12^th century. In the gallery to the southeast of the Church is to be found the Comnenos mosaic, in which the enthroned Madonna and child enthroned are flanked on the left by the Emperor Ioannes Comnenos II holding a pouch of money and on the right by the Empress Irene, a Hungarian princess.

The figure of the Madonna is surmounted by a monogram describing her as the mother of God, while the names of the other figures are inscribed next to them in Greek. In one corner one can also sees the mosaic portraying the sons of the Emperor Inane (John) Comnenos II, and his co-ruler Alexius Comnenos. The latter is shown in a frontal pose, in elaborate gown and crown, and holds a scepter in his raised right hand. On the northern wall of the emperor’s hall, in the southern gallery is to be found the Zoe mosaic. The empress stands to the right of the enthroned Christ with her third husband, the Emperor Constantine Monomachos IX on his left. The mosaic dates to the 11^th century AD. The mosaic of the Emperor Alexander can be seen on the southwestern end of the central hall on the northern gallery.

Alexander, the third son of Basil I, who ruled for 13 months in 912, is shown standing, facing forward, elaborately dressed in ceremonial robes and crown. In his left hand he holds an orb, and in his right hand a pouch. His name and titles are inscribed in two medallions on either side of his head. Dating to the X^th century AD, this mosaic is in reasonably good condition. After seeing these extremely important mosaics, we will have completed our tour of the St. Sophia Church, except for the grounds where one may see the monumental fountain built by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmut I.

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Dolmabahce Palace...

The site of the present-day palace was, at the beginning of the 17^th century, a busy bay in which the Admiralty maintained ships of war, and organized festivities to mark the departure of war expeditions. Under the sultanate of Ahmet the First, the area was filled with earth from a nearby hill to become a picnic ground reserved for the sultans. The name ‘Dolmabahçe’ stems from this land fill. “Dolma” means ‘filled’ in Turkish, and ‘bahçe’ , ‘garden’, therefore ‘Filled Garden’ palace. During, this period the shore area was decorated with summer palaces, mansions, and villas.

The largest of these, the ‘Eski’ (old) Palace included a wide range of rooms, functional as well as elaborately decorative, for the full court of the Sultan. Sultan Mahmut II., after a period of non-use, repaired the Old Palace as a residence, finding the Topkapi Palace confining. In 1843, the Sultan Abdülmecid I ordered the razing of the Old Palace, and in its place, the construction of the present palace began under the direction of his architect Karabet Balyan.

In 1856, the Sultan took up residence in this lavishly decorated palace. The exterior appearance of the palace is dominated by its high central Reception Room, and wings, left and right containing the public and private (harem) rooms, respectively. Its length parades 284 meters (925 feet) down the shores of the Bosphorus on top of a 600 meter, heavily decorated quay. The apartments of the Queen Mother project 95 meters off the harem section at right angles, attached to the harem by the apartments of the Crown Prince. The interior layout of the palace is very simple and regular, consisting of groups of rooms on a straight line, opening to a larger chamber, an forming a cohesive unit. For example, each private bedroom of the harem opens into a central living chamber. The outer grounds of the palace were completed by the additions of, first, the Mosque of the Queen Mother (of Abdülmecit) and second, the Clock Tower, built by Sultan Abdülhamit II. Additional sections and buildings were added to the complex, such as the Treasury, the Chamber of the Chief Eunuch, Glass Villa, and opposite today’s shore road, the pharmacy and the Pastry Kitchens of the palace. In addition to these, along the shore on either side of the main palace complex, supporting units of the sultan’s household stretched for almost another kilometer, such as Carriage Houses, Stables, and a special Harem for the Princes.

The palace features two highly elaborate gateways, symbolic of the empire’s magnificence. The Treasury Gate faces the Clock Tower, and the Regal Gate, the main roadway. Each columned gate focuses upon a central arch, framed by smaller side arches, within a graceful oval indentation of the palace walls themselves. Towers accentuate these ovals. Heavy ornamentation is dominated by columns, rosettes, oyster shells, leaves and branches, and strung pearls. The settes, oyster shells, leaves and branches, and strung pearls.

The pediment is decorated with roses, wreaths and vases. Above the Treasury Gate, in green and gold, is the monogram of Sultan Abdülmecit dated 1853, below which is an inscription by the poet Ziyver dated 1857. The regal Gate carries the same monogram, dated 1854. The grounds of the palace, in accordance with Islamic social customs in the Ottoman period are framed by high walls. In a break with tradition , the gardens are on a flat plane, unlike the traditional Turkish terraced gardens. The break is logical as the Chief Gardener and his aids during the period were Germans.

The palace was built of marble from the islands of the Marmara Sea and prophyry from Bergama, on the Aegean Sea coast. The ornate and heavy 19th century decor none-the-less carries a flavor of traditional Turkish design. The structure of Turkish home life was the focus of the interior layout. Each section of the palace is like a separate Turkish home: a central gathering place, surrounded by smaller, and more private rooms. The exterior look of the palace is dominated by the Baroque and Eclectic style of the Renaissance period. Floor levels are clearly separated, with different styles of column capitals. Triangular pediments and marble parapets blend with a wide range of architectural motifs drawn from western design in symmetrical harmony. Interior materials are dominated by alabaster, marble, and porphyry, the work of Italian and French artists. Furnishings and interior decorate the work of the famed French designer Sechan, creator of the Paris Opera.

The balsam and mahogany doors and window frames, ornamented in richly carved and gold-leafed-relief, in combination with the frescoed ceilings remind one of the interiors of French palaces. In the interior decor, ceilings are emphasized. They are sectioned, and generally frescoed. In addition scenes of nature, and figurative compositions have been painted on canvas and stretched on the ceiling surfaces. The Queen Mother’s Bedroom ceiling is an excellent example of this treatment. Exceptions are found in the ceiling of the Holiday Reception Hall where the ceiling is of sheet Lead, the Selamlik (male quarters) Dining Room (painted wood), and the baths which have ceilings decorated in stone. The three story palace has 285 rooms, 43 salons, 6 balconies, and six Turkish baths. Another dominant feature of the interior is the crystal. Bohemian and Baccarat chandeliers and fireplaces sparkle and tinkle, adding warmth and character to the other wise vast spaces on the palace. 36 major chandeliers, however, pale in significance alongside the grandest of them all, the 4 and a half ton chandelier in the Holiday Reception Hall, a gift of Queen Victoria, and the largest in the world.

The palace includes an Art Gallery with noted works of Zonaro, Fromentin, and Aivazowski, 280 Chinese, Japanese, ‘Yildiz’ (Turkish) and European vases, 156 historic and elegant clocks, 581 silver, crystal, and other candelabras, 11 silver braziers, crystal and silver stem and flatware, and room decorations. Of particular note are the crystal balustrades in the Crystal Staircase room. In addition, there are five major staircases, 7 service staircases, and one elevator, added during the Republic Period, during the illness of Turkish President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic.

The building was originally heated with braziers and fireplaces. After Sultan Abdülhamid, it was heated with tile stoves. Finally, during the Sultanate of Mehmet Reshat V central heating and electricity were installed. Even these 20^th century functional services were made princely, by the addition of gold leaf to the radiators. The inlaid parquet floors, particularly in the rooms and salons of the Sultan’s private apartments are an additional elegant feature, and unique such that they might be the subject of separate research themselves. From 1877 to 1909, Sultan Abdülhamit II, chose to live in the Yildiz Palace, leaving Dolmabahçe empty and decaying. After 32 years, on ascending to the sultanate, Mehmet Reshad V, ordered the architect Vetad to repair and refurnish the palace as his residence.The palace saw very active days during the reign of Mehmet Reshat V, from 1909-1918. His successor, Vahdeddin, moved to the Yildiz Palace after only a short residence in Dolmabahçe. His successor, in turn, Abdülmecid, chose again to reside in Dolmabahçe, remaining here until March 3, l924 , when the palace was declared public property with the fall of the Ottoman Empire. This was not in fact a departure from tradition under the sultans, as by tradition, the sultan himself, as well as all his possessions and palaces were considered public property.

The palace is entered passing from the dominant green and white of the gardens, up gray marble staircases through a columned pediment, in all, a very grand entrance. The Foyer is decorated with matching four-meter tall mirrors on either side, and French flower vases, a gift of the French to Abdülhamit.

The main parquet-floored hall is supported by four columns, with columned separations creating smaller lounges on left and right. The capitals and vertical lines of the columns are gold-plated. Ceiling spans are separated with ribs, and treated in colored engravings. Off of each of the four corners are small rooms, behind the fireplaces, used on occasion as waiting areas fireplaces bases are ceramic tile, and the upper portion cut crystal. On the mantle of each is a porcelain Sevre vase bearing the monogram of Abdülmecit.

The central table is of balsam wood,also bearing the monogram of the Sultan. In the left and right lounges are tables of Italian style stone. The large vases in front of each lounge are of ‘Yildiz’ manufacture, each in four parts, with illustrations done bay Turkish and French artists. Carpets and upholsters in the hall are of Turkish ‘Hereke’ manufacture. The crystal candelabra an each of the footed tables of the lounges bring the crystal effect in to all corners of the Entrance Hall.

Departing the Entrance Hall, the visitor begins to ascend a staircase into an atmosphere quite unlike that of any set of functional stairs. Although the staircases in the salon do of course serve a function, it seems incidental, as the swirl of stairs, crystal and inlaid floors, to the vast vaulted glass dome over-head gives a self-contained unity to the salon. All of the entry and exit doors from this grand stair well are of mahogany, highlighted with gold-leaf.

On the left balcony of the salon, blue-based Sevre vases, and covered Japanese vases dominate. In the four corners of the salon are floor standing crystal candelabra. Silver based candelabra are placed in the open spaces above the curve of the stairs. On the land side lounge of the salon are located two flower vases of Indian origin, the bases of which are decorated with a lion and horse, and deer relieves, respectively. The upper portions are decorated with colorful raised stones. On the central table is a musical clock made by artisans in the Shipyard of the Golden Horn, bearing the monogram of Sultan Mahmud II, and decorated in gold, diamonds, and emeralds. At the side of each of the doors leading to the Diplomatic Audience Suite are extravagant candelabras of solid silver and ivory, a gift of the Governor of Arabia to Abdühamit II. They serve as a frame for the Chinese porcelain vases between them.

The four corners of this grand salon sparkle with fireplaces of, again, cut crystal, tiles, and gold-leaf. Their mantles hold Chinese porcelain vases and Sevre candelabras. The ceiling is ribbed and sectioned, decorated in raised gold-leafed roses. Three side lounges, separated from the main salon by twin columns, are located on the sea, garden, and land side of the room. A Baccarat crystal chandelier in the center of the room hangs as a witness to many great momentous decision to Westernize Turkish by abolishing the Arabic alphabet, and introducing the Latin. In addition to the Hereke-covered furnishings, crystal and silver candelabras complete the room’s decoration. The piano on the land side of the room is French, an inlay of fine metals and wood. Salon in this room there were put. In the center of the room is a Sevre vase upon a marble table atop a Persian ‘Tabriz’ carpet. The twin-faced clock at the entrance from the Crystal Stairs is of solid Sterling silver, depicting tropical scenes of nature, and deer. The clock on the opposite side of the salon is four faced, of Arabesque style, and also solid Sterling silver. It is en graved with a poem to the glory of Sultan Abdülhamit II.

The small room passed through in arriving at the waiting room was reserved for translators. Two vases of gold-leaf, and deep blue enamel of Berlin origin grace the corners of the room. The central table carries Baroque-style silver candelabras. A gold-leafed raised crystal mirror is located at the right of the entrance. A pair of gold-leafed bronze clocks and candelabras on the buffet are among the other elegant furnishings of the room. The ceiling is in Gothic style, whose designs are intended to give the illusion of infinity. The basic decor of the main waiting room carries many of the rich features common to most rooms of the palace, gold-leaf, mahogany, crystal, etc. Of particular note here, however, is the effect of unity created by the careful blending of ceiling to walls to windows by introduction of a lacy curtain-like treatment to all of these elements. The total effect, although extremely rich, is none-the-less very satisfying. In this atmosphere, the foreign dignitary would wait for his opportunity to enter the next room and have his private audience with the Sultan.

The foreign ambassador would leave his accompanying delegation in the small room entered enroute to the Audience Chamber, decorated in crimson, and filled with victorious battle scenes. The mood of the Audience Chamber is rich crimson and gold, the Sultan’s couch framed as it were by a solid cornice overhead, heavily embossed with gold-leaf. Two Russian St. Petersburg vases stand in the far corners, with a Louis XV clock opposite them. The marble table in the room’s center is topped by a set of candelabras and vase in Sterling silver. The room is completed by two red crystal fire places at either side of the entrance. In front of each fireplace is a small table, each gifts of Napoleon, depicting Napoleon with the women in his life on one, and angels on the other. The lower panels of the walls are solid mahogany with the upper panels engraved and gold-leafed. Exiting from the Private Audience Chamber, on return to the main salon we see, in the sea-side lounge; a Japanese dragon-based vases.

Translated to English this is the ‘Two - sided’ salon, due to its overlooking both sea and garden sides of the palace. The ceiling, in three sections, uses artificial columns in gold-leaf to support its center. The whole of the ceiling itself is as well treated in gold-leaf. The parquet flooring is in an interlocking star shaped pattern. On the sea side of the salon are found mirrors and consoles inlaid with precious metals, highlighted with embossed gold-leaf. The matching furniture and drapery fabrics are of Turkish ‘Hereke’ manufacture. On the far side of the room is a mirror-topped Bohemian crystal red fireplace. Mirrored consoles frame the fireplace, topped by gold-leafed crystal candelabras. In the center of the central section is a large Sevre vase atop a marble and gold-leafed table, all beneath a massive chandelier. Furnishings on the land side are the same as the sea side, with the addition of a piano. As well, two Syrian mother-of-pearl inlaid buffets are featured in the stair entrance. This room originally had a very religious function for the palace as the sight of prayers at religious holidays, for the dead, and wedding ceremonies. When the Sultan received ‘Tranquility’ lessons here, he sat on the sea side atop a cushioned sofa surrounded by his attendants. During the Ramazan time each year, this room was filled with prayer rugs, with a special section screened off for the women of the harem. In addition to these religious functions, the Zülvecheyn Salon was one of the best - suited large rooms in the palace for large dinner receptions.

Shortly after the ascension to the throne, two major receptions took place here, one for the Vice-roy (governor) of Egypt, and one for the King and Queen of Bulgaria. During the time of the last Calif (Abdülmecid) two dinners occurred here, one for the royalty and one for the Princes of the household. Under the Presidency of Atatürk, this room served as the Presidential Dining Room. During these times a Turkish musical group would entertain on the sea side end, with a western orchestra at the side of the room near the stair entrances.

Also called the ‘Red Room’ for its dominant color, this room is reached though a second iron gate at the end of the corridor leading to the harem section. On the left at the entrance is a high reliefed gold-leafed marble fireplace, whose framed oval mirror stretches to the ceiling. The heavily decorated twin entry doors frame the fireplace. An unusual French Abusson carpet covers the floor of the entire room. Ceiling decorations are quiet unique.

Within the domed or vaulted central section of the ceiling a balconied effect is created. The four corners carry representations of ship bows, and weapons among garlands, a motif that carries in to the bland of gold-leaf relief that joins the ceiling to the walls. At the window side are vases on consoles. A massive red and white crystal chandelier completes this very rich room.

The Queen Mother’s bed stands on the right of the room, gold-leafed reliefed, and elegantly canopied. Near by is a bronze, mother-of -pearl inlaid jewelry box, made by the shops of the Yildiz Palace 1902 . Its design is in harmony with the dominant gold in he rest of the furnishing of the room. The ceiling is of hand engraved cloth.

The dominant blue color of the curtains, ceiling and walls of his salon give it is name. The extensions at either end are brightened with three windows across the sea land side. Each section of the ceiling is framed by heavily decorated, gold-leaf massive frames. The panels of the ceiling were mounted after being carved. Scenes of nature and flower arrangements are featured. A red and white crystal chandelier hangs at the center. At the entrance, the visitor observes a pair of mirrored consoles at left and right. These repeat themselves on all four of the side entrances of the room. The floor-standing chandeliers in from of each of the paired mirrors throw additional life and light into the room. The sea-side lounge is decorated in a light-colored quilted fabric. Its walls are colorfully engraved, with the same composition carrying to the walls of the land side lounge. The porcelain vase in the salon’s center is of Yildiz manufacture and stands on a round gold-leaf high relief table. During the Republic Period, an elevator was for the use of the ill President Atatürk. During the Abdülmecit period many receptions took place in the Blue Room. In addition, the sultan observed his family religious holidays here, in the company of his children and women. Abdülaziz in addition accepted many foreign dignitaries here. Both Abdülhamit II., and Mehmet Reshat V, were enthroned here, and in the late years of the Sultanate, the Harem band performed marches.

When we enter the Blue the Blue Room, on the right we see two smaller rooms over looking the sea. The first room was used by Gazi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Founder and First President of the Republic of Türkiye, as a study. The visitor notices by contrast with the rest of the palace, the simplicity of this room. The second room, served as Atatürk’s bedroom, and it was here that the great revolutionary died on November 10^th, 1938. At the entrance to the bedroom on the right wall there is a painting depicting the four seasons, much beloved by Atatürk. All of the furnishings are of walnut, with a medicine chest along side the death bed, containing the medications last used by the late president. The decor is one of stars and leaves, done in gold-leaf.

This room, named for its dominant color, was the gathering place for the women of the harem. The ceiling is of engraved plaster. The basic decoration of the room is mirrors and consoles. Gold-leaf and gold - threaded fabrics reflect in the mirrors. A bronze inlaid balsam table stands atop a huge Hereke carpet at the center of the room. The room is lighted by the central chandelier and its matching four floor-standing candelabra. The basic heating system of the room is through Sterlin silver braziers in the corners of the room. As in the rest of the palace, he gold-plated radiators and tile stoves were a later addition.

The galeried hall is the central focus of the palace, both from exterior and interior. The galleries were used for seating of women of the court, foreign dignitaries, musicians, and other invited persons outside the court who would come to observe holiday festivities. The room takes its name from the traditional event of the sultan receiving greeting for a happy holiday on the occasion of annual religious observances.

A few days before the holiday in question, the Throne of Murat III would be brought here from the Treasury of Topkapi (still to be seen today), and set up in the hall, on its garden side, facing the sea. Opposite this, a loge of chairs for foreign dignitaries was set up. After the holiday prayers, the sultan would rest in a small room in the corner of the hall. Greetings would then be accepted from royalty, his Council of Ministers, and all male protocol members present, by their approaching him on the throne, and kissing his outstretched tassel. The two corner rooms on the land side have flat ceilings, while those by the sea are domed.

These rooms were the resting rooms of the sultans before the start of receptions. In the time of Abdülhamit II a hidden stair was added in the left room at the land side in order that he might leave the ceremonies in secret. The hall measures 40 by 45 meters. Paired columns support semidomes, which in turn support the 36 meter high central dome. The inside of the dome is lead lined, and colorfully engraved with designs. An inscription on the stair leading to one of the galleries giving the names of three Armenians would indicate that the dome is their work. The columns are marble imitations, having been cast in a foundry.

The lighting of the salon is provided by four porphyry-based crystal candelabras in the corners of the room, column candelabras of silver in matching pairs, and the 4.5 ton central chandelier, a gift to the sultan by England’s Queen Victoria.

The hanging base of the chandelier fell during an earthquake as a reception was taking place during the time of Abdülhamid II. On weighting it was found to total 700 kilograms ! Heating was accomplished in this huge expanse of space by six domed furnaces beneath the floor of the hall, and hot air ducts opened at the foot of the columns. Heating began two days in advance of a reception in order to bring the hall to a temperature of 18-20 degrees centigrade.

In addition to holiday celebrations, this grand hall experienced other events of historical note. In 1856, Sultan Abdülmecid gave a dinner reception here for Marschal Pelissier. A state dinner was also given for the Hungarian Emperor Franz Josef. During the final months of World War I the Austria-Hungarian Emperor Karl and his Empress were honored with a state dinner.

The first parliamentary assembly under the Ottomans took place here under Sultan Abdülhamid II. ‹n 1877. In 1927, returning to Istanbul for the time as President of Türkiye, Atatürk addressed a large gathering her on the beauties of Istanbul. The group included parliamentarians, generals, and elites of the city of Istanbul. On his death Atatürk’ s body lay in state under this great dome.

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Suleymaniye Mosque...

Süleyman the Magnificent ordered a mosque appropriate to his title to be built by the Architect Sinan, whereupon the present mosque was begun on one of the hills dominating the Golden Horn.

To ensure the absolute stability of the foundations, upon the bed-rock of the site, three years of preparations were made, and three more years passed in the construction of these foundations. Following these fastidious preparations, the actual construction of the mosque begun. The mosque, and its attendant structures, madrasa, arms-houses, infirmaries, caravanserais, a medical school, baths, schools of tradition (Dar-ül Hadis) a hospital (Dar-üs shifa), cells and shops were begun in 1550 by the Architect Sinan and completed in 1557. The architect called it a work of his training period. The truly magnificent mosque now dominates the sky-line of the city from the Galata Bridge. On its completion, it was opened to worship when the sultan and his entire court attended a vast consecration ceremony. The large outer court is entered by 11 portals. The inner court, rectangular in form, is reached through three portals, one central, the others flanking this. The central portal is dressed with fine stonework, and surmounted by an inscription containing the Islamic proclamation of faith.

Flanking the portal on both sides are three rows of cells and 12 windows. The courtyard is paved in marble, and framed by a revak covered with 28 cupolas. In the center is a rectangular fountain with an ornamented central piece. Two of the four minarets of the mosque which both have two “Sherefe”s (balconies) are situated in the two corners of the northern facade. The other two are to be found on the rear facade of the mosque; these are taller than the first pair and dressed with three balconies. The total of ten balconies was to indicate that Süleyman being the tenth Ottoman sultan. The mosque itself is almost square in plan, measuring 63x68 m. The height of the dome is 53 m. Entrance is through the central portal of the main façade, and the two side portals, which lead, respectively, to the imperial gallery and to the public nave. The central dome rests on four arches springing from four great piers; while a semidome is placed over the mihrab and the entrance portal. On either side of the main dome are five cupolas, supported on pillars set between the main piers, and resting on the arches from these piers. Thus an outstanding area was left free for congregational prayer. On the street to the left of this mosque are situated the primary school and madrasas of the complex, which are now the Library of Süleymaniye; The Medical School on the corner of the street is today used as a Dispensary, while on the opposite side of hospital is today a Military Printing Office.

The magnificence of the mosque, clearly reflected in its architecture, also prevails on the interior, in the fine portal gates, carved marble mihrab and mimber, and even in the carpets, chandeliers and bronze candlesticks. The mosque is illuminated by 138 windows which bestow a superb light upon the interior. The mihrab is decorated with blue and white Kütahya tiles and the mosque has an acoustics quality which attests to the mastery of its architect. The materials used in the building of the mosque were brought to the site from the Istanbul area, and even from the farthest part of the empire. Two of the piers originated from the city of Istanbul, one from Alexandria in Egypt and one from the ruins of Baalbeek. The tomb of the sultan, also the work of Sinan, is an appropriate edifice to the magnificence of all. The tomb, built by Sinan for the sultan on his death at the age of 71, in 1566, is octagonal, each face decorated with inscriptions and five windows, two below and three attached to the clerestory. The dome of the tomb is ornamented with a marble crested console. The tomb is surrounded by a covered gallery resting on 29 columns. The portal door is of ebony inlayed with ivory and decorated with relief work, the walls on either side of the portal with turquoise, dark blue, white, red and harmonious yellow tile panels. Within the tomb, four of the eight columns resting on marble bases are of white marble, four are pink marble. The capitals are decorated with gilded inscriptions.

The dome of the tomb is supported on these columns, and this is decorated with designs typical of the period, in which burgundy is the dominating tone. There are seven catafalques (decorated platforms on which the coffin of a famous person lies) in the tomb of Süleyman, whose own catafalque is the high structure in the center of the mausoleum.

Flanking this türbe is a second mausoleum, which belongs to the wife of the sultan, Hürrem Sultan, the famous lady who addressed the sultan in her favor with the words “I would sacrifice myself for one hair from your whiskers.” This is octagonal and presided by a rivak. The entrance portal is decorated with faience on either side.

Sultan Ahmet Mosque...

Ahmed I, who ascended the throne at the age of fourteen was an extremely religious-minded sultan, who displayed his religious fervor in his decision to construct a mosque to compete with Ayasofya. For the site, a suitable place was long sought before the decision was taken. At last the mosque decided to build on the site of the palace of Ayse Sultan. The owner of the palace was compensated and the site prepared by the architect Mehmed Aga, who began the construction in 1609.

This architect poet and inlayer completed this great work in 1617. An imperial lodge, school, service kiosk and single and double storied shops were included in the complex, which spread over the area around the mosque. The mosque itself is surrounded on three sides by a broad courtyard, and is entered on each side by a total of eight portals. The inner court is reached through three gates, and is paved in marble, and surrounded by revaks supported on columns of pink granite and marble, and two of porphyry, and surmounted by 30 cupolas. A fine fountain for ablution takes up the center of the courtyard, surrounded by six marble columns. The mosque is unique with its six minarets in Istanbul. Four of these have three balconies, two have two balconies each, a total of 16 in all.

According to the memoirs of Mehmed Aga, the “Risale-i Mimariye” -the number of balconies was originally to be 14 in honor of the number of Ottoman sultans, but in the 16th century, the number was increased by two, according to Incicyan, to include the sons of Yildirim Bayezid, Emir Süleyman and Musa Çelebi, who had meanwhile been counted among the sultans. This mosque intended to match and compete with Ayasofya, but in reality surpass it in proportion and the balance of internal spaces. It covers an area of 64x72 m in all.

The central dome rests on four pointed arches with corner pendentives, which are in turn set upon four large round and fluted piers, 1.60 m in diameter. Four semidomes, one to each side of the central dome, and small cupolas in the corners complete the roof-system of the mosque. The sultan’s gallery in the left corner is flanked by the penitentiary cell of Ahmed I. Sultanahmet Mosque is given a bright and open effect through carefully calculated illumination balanced with faience decorating in the interior, as if heralding a new type of architecture.

The most original feature of the mosque is the 260 windows through which it is so well lit. Later these colored windows were repaired and consequently light entering the interior increased. However this is said to have removed the mystic atmosphere of the interior. According to Celal Esat Arseven, the architect Mehmet Aga has attempted to create an extremely well lit sofa, (divan area).

The walls and piers are covered with faience for a third of their height to the level of the upper consoles. A total of 21043 tiles have been used in the interior. The mosque received its synonym as the Blue Mosque from the bluish haze given to the interior by these tiles. The faience consists of floral and rumi motifs of various colors on white ground. These are very fine examples of the art of tiling. The bronze and wooden decorations and artifacts of the mosque are also very fine. Calligraphy is the work of Ameti Kasim Gubari and the fine mother-of-pearl window shutters are the work of Sedefkar Mehmet Aga. Ahmet I died in 1617 and was buried near the mosque.

The tomb, which was begun after this date, was completed in the time of his son Osman II. The building is basically rectangular with a domed portico and a square extension at the rear. The entrance rivak is supported on 6 columns, with a cross vault in the center flanked by a cupola on either side. The ebony doors of the tomb are worked with inscriptions from the Koran.

The plaster windows have been replaced by glass, making the interior very light. The narrow panels between these windows on the interior are covered with 17^th century tiling. These are dark green, dark red, blue and white. The most striking feature of this tiled decoration is a band of inscription in reserve white over a dark blue back ground around the interior. The dome and walls are plastered. Above the marble mihrab-like niches on the facade facing the entrance are to be found inscriptions relating to the construction of the tomb of Osman II. This mausoleum contains 36 tombs of various sizes; the central one of which belongs to Ahmet I. In front of the mausoleum a marble-faced clock tower was built during the 19^th century. Behind this is a library.